Felting

Location	Finland
Tags	wool, wool fibre, sheep’s wool, Finnish sheep wool, merino wool, raw wool, silk fibre, pre-felt, carded wool batt, top (combed wool sliver), curly fibres, sheep breeds, felt, felting, fulling, rolling, layering, flat felting, rubbing technique, nuno felting, needle felting, needle felt, industrial felt, recycled felt

Practitioners and people who know the tradition well

The basic idea of felting is familiar to many from childhood. Snowballs shaped from wet snow become compacted in the hands, and over time mittens also harden on the palm side. Felting is based on the same phenomenon: wool fibres are worked together with water, heat and movement until they interlock and form a durable felt fabric.

In present-day Finland, felting is practised especially by craftspeople specialising in felting, known as feltmakers, as well as by textile artists. Felting is practised at home and in various courses, workshops and adult education centres under the guidance of instructors and teachers experienced in felting. Children in daycare centres, pupils in schools and students in basic art education may also experiment with felting under the supervision of a teacher. Sheep farmers, spinning mills, as well as wool importers and retailers supply the wool required for felting. Finland also has three felt factories that manufacture a range of felt products for sale.

In Finland, skills related to felting are promoted by organisations such as the Finnish Felt Association Filtti ry, The Finnish Crafts Organization Taito, regional Taito-associations, adult education centres, Leineperi Ironworks, the University of Lapland, the Finnish Sheep Breeders Association, the Nordic Genetic Resource Center NordGen, and a large number of individual practitioners of the tradition.

Practising of the tradition

Felt is a fabric without warp or weft and without a right or wrong side. Felting is a traditional, ancient technique in which loose wool fibres entangle with one another through mechanical working to form a strong felt fabric. The essence of felting is encapsulated in the old Finnish saying ”hyvin huovutettu on puoliksi vanutettu”, which translates to “well felted is half fulled.”

Felting begins by laying wool fibres in layers, changing the fibre direction in every other layer. This produces a pre-felt, in which the fibres have not yet begun to shrink but have lightly attached to each other. The final stage of felting is fulling, where the fibres are worked vigorously with heat and moisture until the interlocked fibres form a dense, solid felt.

There are several felting techniques from which feltmakers can choose the most suitable for their work. Flat felt is created by felting layered wool fibres using water and soap, either by rubbing by hand or by rolling the work in a towel, rod or bubble wrap, using arms or legs to assist the movement. Rolling can also be done by pulling the roll behind a horse, car or bicycle.

Three-dimensional shapes are created using various moulds or supports. Before fulling, the mould is removed to allow the work to shrink freely. Three-dimensional felting using a pattern is the most technical and demanding felting technique. The pattern may be made of bubble wrap, foam plastic or thick cardboard.

Needle felting or needling, also known as dry felting, is a technique in which dry, loose wool fibres or wool components are attached to each other by repeatedly poking them with a felting needle. This method is used to secure fibres and to create three-dimensional patterns and forms. Needle-felted products are not felt but wool that has been needled together. As these products are not fulled (through rubbing, water treatment and shrinkage), they are not durable in use and do not withstand washing as such.

Machine felting uses a washing machine as an aid to speed up the fulling process. If necessary, the wool product can be placed inside a laundry bag or tights. The technique can also be used to felt knitted items made from felting wool yarn.

Wool, more specifically sheep’s wool, is a natural fibre obtained from sheep. Wool fibres consist of keratin, a protein that is the same substance found in human hair and nails. In addition to the Finnish Landrace sheep, Finland has two other native breeds: the Åland sheep and the Kainuu Grey sheep.

From a felting perspective, Finnish Landrace wool is an excellent material: it has good properties, felts well, and is readily available. Finnish Landrace wool is therefore more familiar to feltmakers than Kainuu Grey wool, which would be excellent due to its softness but is less widely available. Kainuu Grey wool is particularly well suited for dyeing, as it takes on soft hues due to its natural colour and the variation between dark grey and white fibres. Some say that Finnish Landrace wool is the second softest wool after merino.

Finnish Landrace wool has an established set of criteria according to which it can be graded. Other breeds do not have a similar formal system, but certain aspects are sometimes applied informally when assessing other types of wool. In particular, Kainuu Grey wool has been found to be similar in properties to Finnish Landrace wool. Both Finnish Landrace and Kainuu Grey wool are silky and lustrous. Åland sheep wool differs from these in having a distinctly double fleece: a soft undercoat and a coarse outer coat. For this reason, it feels coarser than the wool of the other native breeds.

Merino wool fibres are significantly longer and finer than those of Finnish wool. As a result, merino wool is soft, non-itchy and well suited even for sensitive skin. It feels very pleasant against the skin, and the longer fibres allow the production of thinner fabrics.

The background and history of the tradition

A worker processing felt in the Saimaa Felt Factory. Photo: Kuvapaja, photographer 1950–1959. Lappeenranta Museums.

Felt is probably the world’s oldest textile technique. Because felt decomposes quickly in natural conditions, felt artefacts have rarely survived. The oldest Nordic felt finds are fragmentary. The earliest find is from Norway and has been dated to the Migration Period, 400–500 BCE. Felt is also mentioned in Icelandic sagas. It can be assumed that traditional felt products in the Nordic countries were simple utilitarian objects, essential in a cold climate.

In Finland, based on reliable sources, wool has been used for at least 2,000 years. Wool is therefore one of the oldest textile materials used in Finland, valued especially for its warmth.

Many stories and beliefs are associated with the protective qualities of wool. In Finland, a bride protected her chest with wool fibres at her wedding to avoid mastitis during breastfeeding. Earaches were treated by placing naturally black wool in the ear, and naturally white wool was used to heal burns, abrasions and skin irritations. The Finnish expression “painaa villaisella”, translating to “press with wool” refers to ignoring or not reacting to something, likely originating from the old folk practice of pressing a sore spot with wool.

Felting probably spread to Finland in the late 19th century. Woollen cloth woven from carded wool had been fulled in Finland since at least the 16th century, and in the 19th century knitted items such as socks and mittens were also fulled, especially in western Finland. Felting as a distinct craft arrived in Finland from both the east and the west.

In eastern Finland, Russian feltmakers travelled from house to house in the late 19th century, making footwear from wool supplied by the households themselves. By observing their work, local people learned the technique, and the skill gradually spread. Influences in western Finland came from Sweden. Felting nevertheless had greater economic significance in eastern Finland, particularly in Karelia and Savo, where Finland’s first felt factories were also established.

The dissemination of felting skills was systematically supported in the 1890s. In 1893, a felt school was established in Kajaani with the support of Suomen hätäapukomitea, Finnish emergency relief committee, where the suitability of Finnish wool and the hair of various animals for felting was tested. The following year, the head of the felt school travelled throughout Savo teaching the technique to handicraft school teachers and other interested participants. Courses were organised in fourteen locations and attended by more than 500 people. In addition to sheep’s wool, hair from rabbits, goats, cows, horses and pigs was used. Felt sheets, known as voilokki, were also produced for horse harnesses and for building insulation.

The felt industry began to develop in Finland from the mid-1890s onwards, with expertise gained especially from Russia. Industrial production began first in Savonranta and later in Joensuu. In the early decades of the 20th century, felt factories were established across the country, and by the 1920s around forty companies were operating in the sector. Important production localities included Parikkala, Kiuruvesi and Jämsä, where at their peak several felt factories operated simultaneously in the village of Partala. Domestic felting also developed in industrial localities. Factory workers often made felt products at home for their own use and for limited sale, enabling the skill to be passed on within families and local communities. Previously, especially in low-income households, felting was an important skill that made it possible to produce warm winter footwear.

Among felt products, footwear in particular was in high demand. In the 1940s and 1950s, large quantities of felt boot liners and socks were produced for army use, and forestry workers were a significant user group for felt boots. In the 1960s and 1970s, the importance of felt boots as everyday footwear declined due to urbanisation and the introduction of new materials, leading to a sharp contraction of the felt industry.

Felt slippers on display at the Jämsä felt factory in 1953. Photo: Pekka Kyytinen, Finnish Heritage Agency.

In the 1970s, renewed interest in folk traditions and traditional craft techniques revived felting. Natural colours were initially favoured, and coloured carded wool became available in the 1980s. Craftspeople also dyed their own wool. From the 1990s onwards, the popularity of felting increased, and today felting is part of the working methods of craft enthusiasts as well as artists and designers. In Finland, felt is used not only in traditional products but also widely in art craft, textile art and design.

In Central Finland, particularly in Jämsä, a long tradition of felt expertise has been preserved and continues through still-operating businesses such as Huopaliike Lahtinen (founded in 1921) and felt factory Alhon Huopatehdas (1927). The Jämsä Felt Factory was sold to Pirtin kehräämö in 2021, but Jämsä still has a branch of the spinning mill and a wool intake point. Huopaliike Lahtinen and Alhon Huopatehdas produce traditional felt slippers, other felt footwear and interior products. Huopaliike Lahtinen collaborates with designers on collections. The Koskenpää Felt Factory focuses on products made from industrial felt for industrial use and also collaborates with felt artists. Jämsä is the registered domicile of the Finnish Felt Association Filtti ry.

The transmission of the tradition

Feltmaking skills are transmitted through gatherings among feltmakers, events and courses. Skills are also passed down from one generation to the next. Knowledge about the diversity of the tradition is communicated through exhibitions. Feltmakers encourage people to join the felt community and to learn by doing together. Felting in Finland has a long cultural tradition that has survived to the present day, even though its products and uses have evolved over time.

Felting, which began with hats and footwear, has become increasingly professional, especially through education, felt projects and international connections. Feltmakers established their own association Filtti ry in 1998. Thanks to numerous courses, felting skills have been strengthened.

The Finnish Felt Association Filtti ry brings together feltmakers, artists, craftspeople, teachers, instructors and wool producers. The association promotes cooperation among its members, professional competence and shared professional interests, organises exhibitions, felting courses and workshops, and disseminates information about domestic and international events, exhibitions and competitions. Filtti participates in international exhibitions abroad and invites Nordic and European feltmakers to its annual international summer felt exhibition in Jämsä, which has been organised since 1999. The association includes members from Estonia, Germany, England and Iceland. Filtti is a member of both the British and German felt associations and maintains active exchange of information on courses and content with partners in, for example, Germany, Italy and Hungary. Filtti has published a magazine for its members since 1998, which since 2025 has been freely accessible on the association’s website.

Craft associations and adult education centres offer a wide range of felting-related courses, supporting the transmission of skills and the continuity of the tradition.

The Pirkanmaa design, arts and crafts association Modus ry is an association of designers, professionals in visual arts and crafts, teachers, researchers and producers, and includes members who use felting in their work.

The Villaruukki event, organised since 2020, brings together wool enthusiasts from all over Finland and includes international visitors. Held in the Leineperi ironworks milieu, the event highlights the diversity and usability of wool, the aesthetics of wool products and craft skills, and perspectives on responsibility, sustainability and meaningful experiences.

The Finnish Sheep Breeders Association and Uudenmaan Lampurit ry organise Villapäivä, “the Wool Day”, in Helsinki each autumn. Villapäivä presents the story of Finnish wool from sheep and shearing to finished crafts and products. Visitors also have the opportunity to try felting themselves.

The Nordic Genetic Resource Center (NordGen) is a research and information centre whose work is central to the conservation and sustainable use of native breeds. This directly supports Finnish sheep breeds and the revitalisation of related wool traditions by strengthening the availability and use of domestic wool and the continuity of wool-based cultural traditions. The cooperation network maintained by NordGen, NordWool, includes many Finnish stakeholders. The network aims to promote the wool value chain of local sheep breeds and to develop knowledge sharing and the renewal of traditions across borders. The network supports the transfer of knowledge and skills by organising workshops and compiling and publishing information on traditions and uses related to native-breed wool.

In 2025, Taitoliitto participated in the project “Wool – Source and Potential, Best Practices and Challenges in Use and Re-use Local Resources for Arts and Crafts”, coordinated by the Institute of Industrial Design in Poland. Estonia, Slovakia and the Czech Republic also took part. During the project, international connections were established and partnerships were promoted to improve the utilisation of wool from native sheep breeds through working groups, workshops, a conference and an exhibition.

Skills are mainly transmitted through education and courses. Previously, vocational institutions in crafts and design offered felting as a specialisation within the textile field, allowing students to complete vocational and further vocational qualifications in felting. In the early 2000s, the Huopa on huippua! (“Felt is Great!”) project implemented in Jämsä promoted felting, and feltmakers completed vocational and advanced qualifications during the project. At present, professional feltmakers typically gain their expertise through independent practice, courses and learning from more experienced practitioners.

New applications are being sought for wool and felt products, for example as replacements for plastic. Differently felted wool materials have already been used in oil spill clean-up, as growing substrates and as acoustic panels.

Documentation of the tradition

Knowledge and skills related to felting in Finland are documented in several ways. Key actors in preserving this knowledge include libraries, archives and museums, which collect both tangible and intangible cultural heritage. Felt-related materials preserved in them can be searched via the Finna.fi search service. However, it should be noted that not all materials are accessible through Finna, and further information can often be obtained by contacting these collecting organisations directly. Collections related to felting have been deposited particularly at Craft Museum of Finland.

Information on felting, felting techniques and felt products is also available online, especially on video platforms such as YouTube, where both hobbyists and professionals share content. The preservation and documentation of the tradition is also supported by the website punomo.fi, which provides resources particularly for teaching felting to different age groups. Materials can also be found in the collections of associations, companies and private enthusiasts. Exhibitions, events and association activities strengthen the continuity of the tradition.

Documenting the felting tradition also requires recording methods and processes. Written and photographic documentation is common, but it would be particularly important to record felting processes on video, as movements, work phases and material handling are best conveyed through audiovisual documentation. Video recording, however, depends on available resources, and museums do not always have sufficient capacity for this work.

Sustainable development

Felting is based on a renewable natural material, wool, the production of which supports local agriculture, landscape management and biodiversity. Efforts are made to use wool as efficiently as possible: the highest-quality wool is used for personal-use products, while coarser or lower-quality wool is suitable for uses such as insulation, growing media and oil spill response. Wool is also widely used in various technical and environmental applications.

The felting tradition emphasises principles of sustainable development, such as material efficiency, durability, repair, reuse and recycling. The practice also includes the use of local wool and craft activities that support wellbeing and community engagement.

Felting passes on knowledge about natural materials, seasonal cycles, the rhythm of making by hand and slow working processes. It can provide a counterbalance to disposable culture and strengthen understanding of the value of objects.

Community-based activities related to felting enhance social sustainability by offering opportunities for collaboration, encounters and the sharing of experiences. Courses and workshops foster natural interaction, increase a sense of inclusion, support wellbeing and build connections between people. At the same time, such activities support cultural sustainability: craft skills are preserved and transmitted when traditional techniques are learned together and applied for new purposes.

Felting is part of living craft heritage that is renewed through its practitioners. The use of handmade felt products and accessories can strengthen connections to the craft community and make visible appreciation for craft skills and their significance.

The future of the tradition

Working with wool and felting feels good. The tactile quality of the material, warm water and the rhythmic movements of the body during felting make the process therapeutic. The diverse methods and materials of felting provide many opportunities to support life management and strengthen psychological wellbeing.

Diversity and new forms of the tradition are crucial for the future of felting. Felt is an environmentally friendly material and therefore highly relevant today, rooted both in the past and the future. Felting is a strong example of living heritage: it is based on a solid material and technical tradition, yet its forms of expression are constantly evolving.

Felting is a versatile but demanding craft and will likely continue to interest craftspeople. By developing new techniques, materials and combinations, felting remains engaging and attracts new users and makers. The Finnish Felt Association actively promotes the use of wool and offers craftspeople opportunities to showcase their expertise through exhibitions. It would be beneficial for feltmakers to involve educational institutions more strongly in research, development and experimentation.

For example, craftspeople create draping nuno felt that combines fabric and wool, mainly merino wool due to its fineness. A challenge in felt garments is drape and pattern-making, particularly when using wool from native breeds, as felt itself is not elastic. Felt garments could be improved through surface treatments, such as reducing pilling. Due to climate change, the moisture resistance of felt footwear needs to be enhanced.

The use of wool in clothing and other products can contribute to regional self-sufficiency in the textile sector, counteract the harmful effects of fast fashion, and thereby address environmental and social challenges even at a global scale. Using wool as an ecological, locally sourced material responds to current needs for sustainable solutions related to life on Earth, innovation, decent work and responsible consumption.

Hobbyists, artists, designers, craft entrepreneurs, teachers and community actors each bring their own emphases: for some, durability of utilitarian objects is key; for others, material experimentation, wellbeing or community engagement. This layered character makes the tradition flexible and resilient. Alongside traditional felt products such as footwear and household textiles, felting is increasingly used in artistic expression, installations, design products and new innovations. Combining felting with other techniques, exploring new types of wool and seeking more energy-efficient working methods are popular approaches. Renewal keeps the tradition meaningful in the present. A key challenge is to further promote the use of wool from Finnish native breeds in felting and to develop projects related to this goal.

Felting is a global technique with strong local expressions. When different traditions meet, they produce new insights as well as the need to recognise and respect origins. For the future, balance is essential: openness to new influences coupled with awareness of local wool culture, materials and history. How digitalisation and the integration of new materials into felting will unfold remains to be seen.